The 1000-Year Gap in Jewish History: What Really Happened?

By Yigal Bin-Nun

The millennium that separated the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE and the emergence of Hebrew literature in the 11th century is known as the “Dark Age” of Jewish history. A lack of significant historical records characterizes this period.

According to Josephus Flavius, the Roman occupation of Judea was a time of great upheaval and instability. The destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem and the severe trials endured during three Jewish revolts against the Romans – the Great Revolt, the Diaspora Revolt, and the Bar Kosba (Bar Kokhba) Revolt in 135 CE – created a deep trauma among the Jews.

The destruction of the Temple, which was the center of Jewish ceremony life, led to a decline in Jewish literacy and learning. In addition, the Jewish people were scattered throughout the Roman Empire, which made it difficult for them to maintain a unified culture and identity.

As a result of these factors, the period between 70 and 1000 CE is a time of relative obscurity in Jewish history. There are few historical records from this period, which are often incomplete or unreliable.

The situation began to improve in the 11th century with the emergence of Hebrew literature in the Jewish world. This was due to several factors, including the rise of the Karaite movement, which emphasized the importance of studying the Hebrew Bible, and the development of the Talmud, which became the central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It also helped revive Jewish culture and identity, laying the foundation for spreading Jewish culture in the Middle Ages.

The period between Jerusalem’s destruction and Hebrew literature’s emergence is a complex and fascinating time. It is a time of great upheaval and change, creativity and resilience. Jews began to structure themselves differently from the Jews of the biblical era.

Josephus Flavius’ historical base work used methods employed by Greek and Roman historians comparable in quantity and importance to the historical parts of the books of the Bible.

 Unlike him, some Jewish historians have preferred to fill the gap by relying on the imaginary legendary heroes of the Mishnah and the Talmud and turning them into historical figures—or legends and unfounded speculations, such as the alleged conversion of the Khazars to Judaism.

We have only isolated mentions in the writings of the Church Fathers and in the epigraphy and archaeological remains of Jews who arrived in North Africa after the Diaspora Revolt against the Romans (137-135 CE). While these mentions are necessary for understanding the relationship between the Christian, Muslim, and Jewish worlds, they cannot provide a coherent historical picture, especially regarding the emergence of Jewish communities in Western Europe, Northern France, and Germany.

A very long period separates the world of the Temple in Jerusalem with its bloody sacrifices from the emergence of a new religion primarily focused on the observance of commandments, which would later be called “Judaism” or the “Jewish religion.”

The Roman-Byzantine period has revealed valuable archaeological evidence about the worship of the Judeans in Israel despite the need for historical records. Magnificent mosaic artworks on the floors of synagogues provide historians with a surprising glimpse into the culture, civilization, and beliefs of the Judeans (later called Jews) who frequented these places of worship from the Hellenistic era to the Muslim age.

Archaeological discoveries include about 120 synagogues adorned with mosaics, tombstones, bath statues, and dedications. The mosaics challenged the traditional view of rabbinic Judaism as the dominant form of Judaism during this period.

The findings attest to the predominance of Hellenistic culture in the region and the unmistakable presence of polytheistic worship within Jewish public institutions. The mosaics primarily depict symbols of Greek deities, such as Dionysus or Helios riding a chariot drawn by four horses.

Surprisingly, rabbinic motifs are rarely found in synagogues, and the artistic representations contradict rabbinic Jewish beliefs. This suggests that the religious practices of Judeans during the Roman-Byzantine period were more diverse and evolved over time.

Polytheistic motifs in synagogues after Bar Kokhba Revolt

Emanuel Friedheim, a researcher of Israeli and Phoenician archaeological sites, has meticulously inventoried the artifacts discovered after the Bar Kokhba revolt. These artifacts provide undeniable evidence of polytheistic worship, including polytheistic motifs found in synagogues, baths, coins, and various inscriptions. This is surprising, as it suggests a solid attraction to magic, superstitions, and popular beliefs among the Jewish population at the time. Friedheim also identified in this polytheism a dynamic trend that captivated most Jews more than rabbinic precepts.

It isn’t easy to imagine today the 2400 names of sages mentioned in the Talmud and the heroes of their legends finding themselves in a synagogue in Tiberias, Hamat Gader, Beit Alpha, Beit She’arim, or Sepphoris, serenely contemplating the statue of Zeus in the form of a seductive swan Leda or the mosaics populated by deities such as Jupiter, Helios, and Dionysus, alongside paintings of naked men and women on the walls and floors of synagogues.

This raises the question of how a Jewish community could place symbols of foreign deities at the heart of its synagogues instead of the biblical Yahweh. Did the Sages of the Talmud pray in these synagogues dedicated to idols? Did they accept idolatrous representations out of complacency or serenity?

The Jerusalem Talmud testifies that the sages were compelled to compromise with the presence of idolatry because many Jews earned their livelihood from idol sculpture and even served as priests in polytheistic temples. This suggests that the sages may have tolerated polytheistic motifs in synagogues to avoid alienating these Jews and disrupting their livelihood.

However, it is also possible that the sages needed to understand the implications of these motifs or that they believed they could be interpreted non-idolatrously. Ultimately, the reasons for the presence of polytheistic motifs in synagogues after the Bar Kokhba revolt are complex and still debated by scholars.

Hellenistic Judaism was a diverse movement

Religious scholar Erwin Goodenough was the first to propose, in 1935, the idea of a distinct Hellenistic Judaism during the Greco-Roman period. Evidence of this can be found in the writings of Philo of Alexandria, the Gospel of John, and numerous archaeological discoveries.

In the early 21st century, researcher Seth Schwartz further developed this analysis and suggested that scholars should set aside rabbinic literature and first thoroughly examine historical and archaeological sources. He argued that the idolatry of Jews was a form of social and political conformity within the Roman cultural world.

At the same time, two French researchers, Simon-Claude Mimouni and José Costa, studied “synagogal Judaism” and referred to it as “priestly Judaism.” This term refers to the priests, the Jewish elite, who continued to lead the communities despite the destruction of the Temple. In fact, anyone who was neither Christian nor a member of a rabbinic yeshiva belonged to this category.

This dominant population can be described as a Hellenistic Judaism living in harmony with the Greek world, its culture, and its worship’s popular and mystical aspects without renouncing its specific Jewish identity. This category also included many Hellenists who had individually assimilated with the Judeans (sebomenoi or metuentes) or identified themselves as sympathizers of the Judeans (caelicolae). This phenomenon challenges the notion of the purity of the Jewish race and its genetic uniformity.

After the revolts against Rome, Jews lived throughout the eastern region of Asia in a cultural syncretism composed of ancient Hebrew biblical literature and Greek philosophy.

The Talmud: A Historical Document or a Religious Text?

In the 19th century, French scholars Joseph Derenbourg and Isidore Lévy challenged the existence of key Talmudic figures like Yohanan ben Zakkai. They argued that the slogan “Yavneh and its sages” was a myth created in response to the Nicene Council of 325 AD. However, modern scholars continue to refer to the literature of the Sages and discern traces of earlier periods within it. This has led them to coin the term “the era of the Mishnah and Talmud,” suggesting that everything we know about this period is precisely reflected in the Talmud.

However, this view is problematic. The Talmud provides virtually no concrete information about historical events experienced by Jewish communities. We also do not know who composed this work or during which period. As a result, the legends of the Sages should be interpreted with caution.

If the legends of the Sages are to be believed, then the Sages of the Talmud were a minority among the Jews, and their influence was negligible. They lived isolated in their study institutions, attracting few people, and without governing or representing the communities before the Roman authorities. Although they had an internal hierarchy, they did not create official institutions or a centralized administrative system. They knew they were unable to impose their precepts and behaviors on all Jews, and most Jews did not adhere to their community.

In reality, the Sages of the Talmud were likely a more diverse group than the legends suggest. They may have included some who were more involved in the political and social life of the Jewish community and others who were more focused on study and scholarship. It is also possible that later events, such as the rise of rabbinic Juda.

The author, Yigal Bin-Nun published two books. The bestseller “A Brief History of Yahweh.” His new book, “When We Became Jews,” shatters some basic facts on which Judaism rests.

He is a Historian and research fellow at Tel Aviv University at the Cohen Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Ideas. Has two doctorates from two universities in Paris, both with honors. One of them is in the field of biblical historiography.

Lecturer in certificate courses at Bar Ilan University on Israeli art. Engaged in contemporary art, performance art, inter art, and post-modern dance. Published two books. The bestseller “A Brief History of Yahweh.” His new book “When We Became Jews” shatters some basic facts on which Judaism rests.

Watch his video lectures: https://www.youtube.com/@yigalbin-nun/videos